POLYHERBAL AQUEOUS GEL FORMULATIONS CONTAINING GUAVA, ALOE VERA, AND ACACIA LEAVES FOR ORAL ULCER MANAGEMENT: A COMPREHENSIVE REVIEW
Abstract
Oral ulcers are among the most common disorders affecting the oral mucosa and are characterized by localized epithelial destruction, inflammation, pain, and impairment of normal oral functions. These lesions significantly affect patients’ quality of life by interfering with eating, speaking, swallowing, and maintaining oral hygiene. Although conventional therapies such as corticosteroids, antiseptics, analgesics, and antibiotics provide symptomatic relief, their long-term use may be associated with adverse effects, recurrence, microbial resistance, and inadequate healing. Consequently, there has been growing interest in herbal and polyherbal formulations as safer and more effective alternatives for oral ulcer management. Among medicinal plants, Psidium guajava (guava), Aloe vera, and Acacia species have received considerable attention owing to their extensive traditional use and scientifically validated pharmacological properties. These plants contain diverse phytoconstituents including flavonoids, tannins, polyphenols, polysaccharides, alkaloids, and terpenoids that exhibit antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, analgesic, immunomodulatory, and wound-healing activities. The combination of these botanicals in an aqueous gel formulation offers a synergistic therapeutic approach by targeting multiple pathological mechanisms involved in ulcer development and healing. Aqueous gels further enhance therapeutic efficacy through prolonged mucosal retention, ease of application, improved patient compliance, and localized drug delivery. This review comprehensively discusses the etiology and pathophysiology of oral ulcers, limitations of conventional treatments, phytochemical and pharmacological profiles of guava, aloe vera, and acacia, scientific rationale for polyherbal combinations, formulation approaches, evaluation parameters, preclinical and clinical evidence, safety considerations, and future perspectives. The available evidence suggests that polyherbal aqueous gels containing guava, aloe vera, and acacia leaves represent a promising, cost-effective, and patient-friendly strategy for oral ulcer management.
Keywords:
Oral ulcer, Recurrent aphthous stomatitis, Polyherbal gel, Psidium guajava, Aloe vera, Acacia, Herbal medicine
References
1. Scully C, Porter S. Oral mucosal disease: recurrent aphthous stomatitis. Br J Oral Maxillofac Surg. 2008;46(3):198–206.
2. Edgar NR, Saleh D, Miller RA. Recurrent aphthous stomatitis. Clin Dermatol. 2017;35(1):26–32.
3. Akintoye SO, Greenberg MS. Recurrent aphthous stomatitis. Dent Clin North Am. 2014;58(2):281–97.
4. Preeti L, Magesh KT, Rajkumar K, Karthik R. Recurrent aphthous stomatitis. J Oral Maxillofac Pathol. 2011;15(3):252–6.
5. Altenburg A, Abdel-Naser MB, Seeber H, Abdallah M, Zouboulis CC. Practical aspects of management of recurrent aphthous stomatitis. J Eur Acad Dermatol Venereol. 2007;21(8):1019–26.
6. Ship JA. Recurrent aphthous stomatitis. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol Endod. 1996;81(2):141–7.
7. Natah SS, Konttinen YT, Enattah NS, Ashammakhi N, Sharkey KA, Häyrinen-Immonen R. Recurrent aphthous ulcers today. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol Endod. 2004;97(3):268–79.
8. Rivera C. Essentials of recurrent aphthous stomatitis. Biomed Rep. 2019;11(2):47–50.
9. Gallo CB, Mimura MAM, Sugaya NN. Psychological stress and recurrent aphthous stomatitis. Clinics. 2009;64(7):645–8.
10. Tappuni AR. Recurrent aphthous stomatitis: The role of immunological factors. J Oral Pathol Med. 2020;49(4):298–305.
11. Brocklehurst P, Tickle M, Glenny AM, Lewis MAO, Pemberton MN, Taylor J, et al. Systemic interventions for recurrent aphthous stomatitis. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2012;9:CD005411.
12. Parasuraman S, Thing GS, Dhanaraj SA. Polyherbal formulation: Concept of Ayurveda. Pharmacogn Rev. 2014;8(16):73–80.
13. Gutiérrez RMP, Mitchell S, Solis RV. Psidium guajava: A review. J Ethnopharmacol. 2008;117(1):1–27.
14. Surjushe A, Vasani R, Saple DG. Aloe vera: A short review. Indian J Dermatol. 2008;53(4):163–6.
15. Singh R, Singh B, Singh S, Kumar N, Kumar S, Arora S. Umbrella review of Acacia species. J Ethnopharmacol. 2009;124(3):461–77.
16. Tappuni AR. Recurrent aphthous stomatitis: the role of immunological factors. J Oral Pathol Med. 2020;49(4):298-305. doi:10.1111/jop.12999.
17. Rogers RS 3rd. Recurrent aphthous stomatitis in the diagnosis of Behçet's disease. Yonsei Med J. 1997;38(6):370-379. doi:10.3349/ymj.1997.38.6.370.
18. Jurge S, Kuffer R, Scully C, Porter SR. Mucosal disease series. Number VI. Recurrent aphthous stomatitis. Oral Dis. 2006;12(1):1-21. doi:10.1111/j.1601-0825.2005.01143.x.
19. Barrons RW. Treatment strategies for recurrent oral aphthous ulcers. Am J Health Syst Pharm. 2001;58(1):41-50. doi:10.1093/ajhp/58.1.41.
20. Belenguer-Guallar I, Jiménez-Soriano Y, Claramunt-Lozano A. Treatment of recurrent aphthous stomatitis. A literature review. J Clin Exp Dent. 2014;6(2):e168-e174. doi:10.4317/jced.51305.
21. Chiang CP, Yu-Fong Chang J, Wang YP, Wu YC, Wu YH, Sun A. Recurrent aphthous stomatitis—etiology, serum autoantibodies, anemia, hematinic deficiencies, and management. J Formos Med Assoc. 2019;118(9):1279-1289. doi:10.1016/j.jfma.2018.10.023.
22. Ship JA, Chavez EM, Doerr PA, Henson BS, Sarmadi M. Recurrent aphthous stomatitis. Quintessence Int. 2000;31(2):95-112.
23. Baccaglini L, Lalla RV, Bruce AJ, Sartori-Valinotti JC, Latortue MC, Carrozzo M, et al. Urban legends: recurrent aphthous stomatitis. Oral Dis. 2011;17(8):755-770. doi:10.1111/j.1601-0825.2011.01840.x.
24. Slebioda Z, Szponar E, Kowalska A. Etiopathogenesis of recurrent aphthous stomatitis and the role of immunologic aspects. Arch Immunol Ther Exp (Warsz). 2014;62(3):205-215. doi:10.1007/s00005-013-0261-y.
25. Lewkowicz N, Kur B, Kurnatowska A, Tchorzewski H, Lewkowicz P. Expression of Th1/Th2/Th3/Th17-related genes in recurrent aphthous ulcers. Arch Immunol Ther Exp (Warsz). 2011;59(5):399-406. doi:10.1007/s00005-011-0134-1.
26. Woo SB, Sonis ST. Recurrent aphthous ulcers: a review of diagnosis and treatment. J Am Dent Assoc. 1996;127(8):1202-1213. doi:10.14219/jada.archive.1996.0389.
27. Porter SR, Scully C, Pedersen A. Recurrent aphthous stomatitis. Crit Rev Oral Biol Med. 1998;9(3):306-321. doi:10.1177/10454411980090030501.
28. Femiano F, Lanza A, Buonaiuto C, Perillo L, Dell'Ermo A, Cirillo N. Guidelines for diagnosis and management of aphthous stomatitis. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2007;26(8):728-732. doi:10.1097/INF.0b013e31806215b4.
29. James P, Worthington HV, Parnell C, Harding M, Lamont T, Cheung A, et al. Chlorhexidine mouthrinse as an adjunctive treatment. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2017;3:CD008676. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD008676.pub2.
30. Parasuraman S, Thing GS, Dhanaraj SA. Polyherbal formulation: concept of Ayurveda. Pharmacogn Rev. 2014;8(16):73-80. doi:10.4103/0973-7847.134229.
31. Williamson EM. Synergy and other interactions in phytomedicines. Phytomedicine. 2001;8(5):401-409. doi:10.1078/0944-7113-00060.
32. Heinrich M, Barnes J, Gibbons S, Williamson EM. Fundamentals of Pharmacognosy and Phytotherapy. 3rd ed. Edinburgh: Churchill Livingstone; 2018.
33. Arima H, Danno G. Isolation of antimicrobial compounds from guava leaves and their structural elucidation. Biosci Biotechnol Biochem. 2002;66(8):1727-1730. doi:10.1271/bbb.66.1727.
34. Kim YC, Choi SY, Park EY. Anti-inflammatory effects of quercetin and guava leaf extracts. Food Chem Toxicol. 2011;49(9):2045-2052. doi:10.1016/j.fct.2011.05.021.
35. Chen HY, Yen GC. Antioxidant activity and free radical-scavenging capacity of extracts from guava leaves. Food Chem. 2007;101(2):686-694. doi:10.1016/j.foodchem.2006.02.047.
36. Metwally AM, Omar AA, Ghazy NM, Harraz FM, El Sohafy SM. Monograph on Psidium guajava L. leaves. Pharmacogn J. 2011;3(21):89-104.
37. Hamman JH. Composition and applications of Aloe vera leaf gel. Molecules. 2008;13(8):1599-1616. doi:10.3390/molecules13081599.
38. Eshun K, He Q. Aloe vera: a valuable ingredient for oral health care. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr. 2004;44(2):91-96. doi:10.1080/10408690490424694.
39. Bhalang K, Thunyakitpisal P, Rungsirisatean N. Acemannan, a polysaccharide extracted from Aloe vera, accelerates oral wound healing. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol Endod. 2013;116(5):570-576. doi:10.1016/j.oooo.2013.06.020.
40. Choi SW, Son BW, Son YS, Park YI, Lee SK, Chung MH. The wound-healing effect of Aloe vera. Arch Pharm Res. 2001;24(1):1-6. doi:10.1007/BF02976447.
41. Reynolds T, Dweck AC. Aloe vera leaf gel: a review update. J Ethnopharmacol. 1999;68(1-3):3-37. doi:10.1016/S0378-8741(99)00085-9.
42. Heggers JP, Pelley RP, Robson MC. Beneficial effects of Aloe in wound healing. Phytother Res. 1993;7(S1):S48-S52.
43. Langmead L, Makins RJ, Rampton DS. Anti-inflammatory effects of Aloe vera. Aliment Pharmacol Ther. 2004;19(5):521-527. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2036.2004.01874.x.
44. Davis RH, Donato JJ, Hartman GM, Haas RC. Anti-inflammatory and wound healing activity of Aloe vera. J Am Podiatr Med Assoc. 1994;84(2):77-81. doi:10.7547/87507315-84-2-77.
45. Atiba A, Ueno H, Uzuka Y. The effect of Aloe vera on fibroblast activity and wound healing. J Vet Med Sci. 2011;73(5):583-589. doi:10.1292/jvms.10-0438.
46. Chithra P, Sajithlal GB, Chandrakasan G. Influence of Aloe vera on collagen turnover in healing wounds. Indian J Exp Biol. 1998;36(9):896-901.
47. Heggers JP, Kucukcelebi A, Listengarten D, Stabenau J, Ko F, Broemeling LD, et al. Beneficial effect of Aloe on wound healing in an excisional wound model. J Altern Complement Med. 1996;2(2):271-277. doi:10.1089/acm.1996.2.271.
48. Halliwell B, Gutteridge JMC. Free Radicals in Biology and Medicine. 5th ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press; 2015.
49. Hu Y, Xu J, Hu Q. Evaluation of antioxidant potential of Aloe vera. J Agric Food Chem. 2003;51(26):7788-7791. doi:10.1021/jf034255i.
50. Cock IE. Antimicrobial activity of Aloe vera. Pharmacogn Mag. 2008;4(15):174-180.
51. Lawrence R, Tripathi P, Jeyakumar E. Isolation and characterization of compounds from Aloe vera with antimicrobial activity. J Ethnopharmacol. 2009;124(3):404-408. doi:10.1016/j.jep.2009.05.026.
52. George D, Bhat SS, Antony B. Comparative evaluation of antimicrobial efficacy of Aloe vera against oral pathogens. J Clin Pediatr Dent. 2009;34(1):81-84. doi:10.17796/jcpd.34.1.142747u220220521.
53. Sajjad A, Sajjad SS. Aloe vera: an ancient herb for modern dentistry. J Dent Oral Hyg. 2014;6(6):73-79.
54. Kalaivani T, Mathew L. Free radical scavenging activity from leaves of Acacia species. Food Chem Toxicol. 2010;48(1):298-305. doi:10.1016/j.fct.2009.10.012.
55. Singh R, Singh B, Singh S, Kumar N, Kumar S, Arora S. Umbrella review of Acacia species. J Ethnopharmacol. 2009;124(3):461-477. doi:10.1016/j.jep.2009.04.001.
56. Ali A, Akhtar N, Khan BA, Khan HM, Rasul A. Acacia catechu and oral healthcare applications. Pak J Pharm Sci. 2012;25(4):907-912.
57. Seigler DS. Phytochemistry of Acacia-sensu lato. Biochem Syst Ecol. 2003;31(8):845-873. doi:10.1016/S0305-1978(03)00082-6.
58. Scalbert A. Antimicrobial properties of tannins. Phytochemistry. 1991;30(12):3875-3883. doi:10.1016/0031-9422(91)83426-L.
2. Edgar NR, Saleh D, Miller RA. Recurrent aphthous stomatitis. Clin Dermatol. 2017;35(1):26–32.
3. Akintoye SO, Greenberg MS. Recurrent aphthous stomatitis. Dent Clin North Am. 2014;58(2):281–97.
4. Preeti L, Magesh KT, Rajkumar K, Karthik R. Recurrent aphthous stomatitis. J Oral Maxillofac Pathol. 2011;15(3):252–6.
5. Altenburg A, Abdel-Naser MB, Seeber H, Abdallah M, Zouboulis CC. Practical aspects of management of recurrent aphthous stomatitis. J Eur Acad Dermatol Venereol. 2007;21(8):1019–26.
6. Ship JA. Recurrent aphthous stomatitis. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol Endod. 1996;81(2):141–7.
7. Natah SS, Konttinen YT, Enattah NS, Ashammakhi N, Sharkey KA, Häyrinen-Immonen R. Recurrent aphthous ulcers today. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol Endod. 2004;97(3):268–79.
8. Rivera C. Essentials of recurrent aphthous stomatitis. Biomed Rep. 2019;11(2):47–50.
9. Gallo CB, Mimura MAM, Sugaya NN. Psychological stress and recurrent aphthous stomatitis. Clinics. 2009;64(7):645–8.
10. Tappuni AR. Recurrent aphthous stomatitis: The role of immunological factors. J Oral Pathol Med. 2020;49(4):298–305.
11. Brocklehurst P, Tickle M, Glenny AM, Lewis MAO, Pemberton MN, Taylor J, et al. Systemic interventions for recurrent aphthous stomatitis. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2012;9:CD005411.
12. Parasuraman S, Thing GS, Dhanaraj SA. Polyherbal formulation: Concept of Ayurveda. Pharmacogn Rev. 2014;8(16):73–80.
13. Gutiérrez RMP, Mitchell S, Solis RV. Psidium guajava: A review. J Ethnopharmacol. 2008;117(1):1–27.
14. Surjushe A, Vasani R, Saple DG. Aloe vera: A short review. Indian J Dermatol. 2008;53(4):163–6.
15. Singh R, Singh B, Singh S, Kumar N, Kumar S, Arora S. Umbrella review of Acacia species. J Ethnopharmacol. 2009;124(3):461–77.
16. Tappuni AR. Recurrent aphthous stomatitis: the role of immunological factors. J Oral Pathol Med. 2020;49(4):298-305. doi:10.1111/jop.12999.
17. Rogers RS 3rd. Recurrent aphthous stomatitis in the diagnosis of Behçet's disease. Yonsei Med J. 1997;38(6):370-379. doi:10.3349/ymj.1997.38.6.370.
18. Jurge S, Kuffer R, Scully C, Porter SR. Mucosal disease series. Number VI. Recurrent aphthous stomatitis. Oral Dis. 2006;12(1):1-21. doi:10.1111/j.1601-0825.2005.01143.x.
19. Barrons RW. Treatment strategies for recurrent oral aphthous ulcers. Am J Health Syst Pharm. 2001;58(1):41-50. doi:10.1093/ajhp/58.1.41.
20. Belenguer-Guallar I, Jiménez-Soriano Y, Claramunt-Lozano A. Treatment of recurrent aphthous stomatitis. A literature review. J Clin Exp Dent. 2014;6(2):e168-e174. doi:10.4317/jced.51305.
21. Chiang CP, Yu-Fong Chang J, Wang YP, Wu YC, Wu YH, Sun A. Recurrent aphthous stomatitis—etiology, serum autoantibodies, anemia, hematinic deficiencies, and management. J Formos Med Assoc. 2019;118(9):1279-1289. doi:10.1016/j.jfma.2018.10.023.
22. Ship JA, Chavez EM, Doerr PA, Henson BS, Sarmadi M. Recurrent aphthous stomatitis. Quintessence Int. 2000;31(2):95-112.
23. Baccaglini L, Lalla RV, Bruce AJ, Sartori-Valinotti JC, Latortue MC, Carrozzo M, et al. Urban legends: recurrent aphthous stomatitis. Oral Dis. 2011;17(8):755-770. doi:10.1111/j.1601-0825.2011.01840.x.
24. Slebioda Z, Szponar E, Kowalska A. Etiopathogenesis of recurrent aphthous stomatitis and the role of immunologic aspects. Arch Immunol Ther Exp (Warsz). 2014;62(3):205-215. doi:10.1007/s00005-013-0261-y.
25. Lewkowicz N, Kur B, Kurnatowska A, Tchorzewski H, Lewkowicz P. Expression of Th1/Th2/Th3/Th17-related genes in recurrent aphthous ulcers. Arch Immunol Ther Exp (Warsz). 2011;59(5):399-406. doi:10.1007/s00005-011-0134-1.
26. Woo SB, Sonis ST. Recurrent aphthous ulcers: a review of diagnosis and treatment. J Am Dent Assoc. 1996;127(8):1202-1213. doi:10.14219/jada.archive.1996.0389.
27. Porter SR, Scully C, Pedersen A. Recurrent aphthous stomatitis. Crit Rev Oral Biol Med. 1998;9(3):306-321. doi:10.1177/10454411980090030501.
28. Femiano F, Lanza A, Buonaiuto C, Perillo L, Dell'Ermo A, Cirillo N. Guidelines for diagnosis and management of aphthous stomatitis. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2007;26(8):728-732. doi:10.1097/INF.0b013e31806215b4.
29. James P, Worthington HV, Parnell C, Harding M, Lamont T, Cheung A, et al. Chlorhexidine mouthrinse as an adjunctive treatment. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2017;3:CD008676. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD008676.pub2.
30. Parasuraman S, Thing GS, Dhanaraj SA. Polyherbal formulation: concept of Ayurveda. Pharmacogn Rev. 2014;8(16):73-80. doi:10.4103/0973-7847.134229.
31. Williamson EM. Synergy and other interactions in phytomedicines. Phytomedicine. 2001;8(5):401-409. doi:10.1078/0944-7113-00060.
32. Heinrich M, Barnes J, Gibbons S, Williamson EM. Fundamentals of Pharmacognosy and Phytotherapy. 3rd ed. Edinburgh: Churchill Livingstone; 2018.
33. Arima H, Danno G. Isolation of antimicrobial compounds from guava leaves and their structural elucidation. Biosci Biotechnol Biochem. 2002;66(8):1727-1730. doi:10.1271/bbb.66.1727.
34. Kim YC, Choi SY, Park EY. Anti-inflammatory effects of quercetin and guava leaf extracts. Food Chem Toxicol. 2011;49(9):2045-2052. doi:10.1016/j.fct.2011.05.021.
35. Chen HY, Yen GC. Antioxidant activity and free radical-scavenging capacity of extracts from guava leaves. Food Chem. 2007;101(2):686-694. doi:10.1016/j.foodchem.2006.02.047.
36. Metwally AM, Omar AA, Ghazy NM, Harraz FM, El Sohafy SM. Monograph on Psidium guajava L. leaves. Pharmacogn J. 2011;3(21):89-104.
37. Hamman JH. Composition and applications of Aloe vera leaf gel. Molecules. 2008;13(8):1599-1616. doi:10.3390/molecules13081599.
38. Eshun K, He Q. Aloe vera: a valuable ingredient for oral health care. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr. 2004;44(2):91-96. doi:10.1080/10408690490424694.
39. Bhalang K, Thunyakitpisal P, Rungsirisatean N. Acemannan, a polysaccharide extracted from Aloe vera, accelerates oral wound healing. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol Endod. 2013;116(5):570-576. doi:10.1016/j.oooo.2013.06.020.
40. Choi SW, Son BW, Son YS, Park YI, Lee SK, Chung MH. The wound-healing effect of Aloe vera. Arch Pharm Res. 2001;24(1):1-6. doi:10.1007/BF02976447.
41. Reynolds T, Dweck AC. Aloe vera leaf gel: a review update. J Ethnopharmacol. 1999;68(1-3):3-37. doi:10.1016/S0378-8741(99)00085-9.
42. Heggers JP, Pelley RP, Robson MC. Beneficial effects of Aloe in wound healing. Phytother Res. 1993;7(S1):S48-S52.
43. Langmead L, Makins RJ, Rampton DS. Anti-inflammatory effects of Aloe vera. Aliment Pharmacol Ther. 2004;19(5):521-527. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2036.2004.01874.x.
44. Davis RH, Donato JJ, Hartman GM, Haas RC. Anti-inflammatory and wound healing activity of Aloe vera. J Am Podiatr Med Assoc. 1994;84(2):77-81. doi:10.7547/87507315-84-2-77.
45. Atiba A, Ueno H, Uzuka Y. The effect of Aloe vera on fibroblast activity and wound healing. J Vet Med Sci. 2011;73(5):583-589. doi:10.1292/jvms.10-0438.
46. Chithra P, Sajithlal GB, Chandrakasan G. Influence of Aloe vera on collagen turnover in healing wounds. Indian J Exp Biol. 1998;36(9):896-901.
47. Heggers JP, Kucukcelebi A, Listengarten D, Stabenau J, Ko F, Broemeling LD, et al. Beneficial effect of Aloe on wound healing in an excisional wound model. J Altern Complement Med. 1996;2(2):271-277. doi:10.1089/acm.1996.2.271.
48. Halliwell B, Gutteridge JMC. Free Radicals in Biology and Medicine. 5th ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press; 2015.
49. Hu Y, Xu J, Hu Q. Evaluation of antioxidant potential of Aloe vera. J Agric Food Chem. 2003;51(26):7788-7791. doi:10.1021/jf034255i.
50. Cock IE. Antimicrobial activity of Aloe vera. Pharmacogn Mag. 2008;4(15):174-180.
51. Lawrence R, Tripathi P, Jeyakumar E. Isolation and characterization of compounds from Aloe vera with antimicrobial activity. J Ethnopharmacol. 2009;124(3):404-408. doi:10.1016/j.jep.2009.05.026.
52. George D, Bhat SS, Antony B. Comparative evaluation of antimicrobial efficacy of Aloe vera against oral pathogens. J Clin Pediatr Dent. 2009;34(1):81-84. doi:10.17796/jcpd.34.1.142747u220220521.
53. Sajjad A, Sajjad SS. Aloe vera: an ancient herb for modern dentistry. J Dent Oral Hyg. 2014;6(6):73-79.
54. Kalaivani T, Mathew L. Free radical scavenging activity from leaves of Acacia species. Food Chem Toxicol. 2010;48(1):298-305. doi:10.1016/j.fct.2009.10.012.
55. Singh R, Singh B, Singh S, Kumar N, Kumar S, Arora S. Umbrella review of Acacia species. J Ethnopharmacol. 2009;124(3):461-477. doi:10.1016/j.jep.2009.04.001.
56. Ali A, Akhtar N, Khan BA, Khan HM, Rasul A. Acacia catechu and oral healthcare applications. Pak J Pharm Sci. 2012;25(4):907-912.
57. Seigler DS. Phytochemistry of Acacia-sensu lato. Biochem Syst Ecol. 2003;31(8):845-873. doi:10.1016/S0305-1978(03)00082-6.
58. Scalbert A. Antimicrobial properties of tannins. Phytochemistry. 1991;30(12):3875-3883. doi:10.1016/0031-9422(91)83426-L.
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15/06/2026
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Boggula, N. (2026). POLYHERBAL AQUEOUS GEL FORMULATIONS CONTAINING GUAVA, ALOE VERA, AND ACACIA LEAVES FOR ORAL ULCER MANAGEMENT: A COMPREHENSIVE REVIEW. Bulletin of Advanced Drug Delivery and Therapeutics, 1(1), 1-16. Retrieved from https://saapjournals.org/index.php/baddt/article/view/910
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